What Does It Mean to Be an Ethical Leader?

Running Head: CRJ220 Assignment 6 CRJ220 Assignment 6 Thomas Seagle Strayer University What does it mean to be an ethical leader? Obviously, one first has to be sure that one is not personally engaged in unethical and corrupt behaviors. Unfortunately, in many recent examples, leaders cannot pass even this first test. In addition, one has to take responsibility for the larger role responsibilities of a leader position.One of the most distressing aspects of public scandals involving public officials is the discovery that their wrongdoing was often well known to those who should have done something about it, the topic of the â€Å"Quote and Query† box. (Pollock, J. 2010 Ethical Dilemmas and Decisions in Criminal Justice Sixth Edition) Leadership is the position or function of a leader, a person who guides or directs a group. Criminal justice professionals should develop and maintain leadership skills in their professional and personal lives because it’s what they do.To som e, they are role models, but to all they are the ones who make and/or carry out the laws. Leadership involves the commitment, dedication, and risk taking attitude of the individual. Some leadership skills that they should obtain is (1) Quick thinking. This means that those working in criminal justice must be of sharp and sound mind, able to adapt to situations quickly and make snap decisions with good judgment. (2) Strong ethical sensibility. You should be ethical, act fairly and always in the best interest of the people. 3) People skills. You need to be able to communicate with others. Communication and people skills are critical in everything from directing traffic to conducting an interview to testifying in court. (4) Knowledgeable of laws. If you work in the criminal field you should be familiar and know the laws of the state and national. Especially officers, they should always be familiar with laws and how to enforce them. (5) Ability to handle stress. Most criminal justice jo bs, even office jobs, can be emotionally and/or physically demanding.They should maintain these because it’s what can help them and others. Ethics is a system of moral principles. Ethics applies to professional responsibilities. Where do ethics play a role in criminal justice? It would be where the people working the field are not supposed to be corrupt, or dishonest, but are allowed to lie to suspects as an interrogation technique. (Weaver, G. R 2006) A virtue ethics perspective considers the law enforcement character, motivations, and intentions (something we didn’t discuss at all under the other two perspectives).According to virtue ethics, it is important that the individual intends to be a good person and exerts effort to develop him or herself as a moral agent, to associate with others who do the same, and to contribute to creating an organizational context that supports ethical behavior. (Denton 2011) Can anyone argue against the idea that if leaders are honest, ethical, and caring, there is a good chance that those who work for them will also be ethical? If administrators and/or managers are hypocritical, untruthful, and use their positions for personal gain, workers often march in these same footsteps.If the business itself is premised on misleading the consumer and perpetrating fraud to secure higher profits, why should business leaders expect that workers would behave any differently? Trautman (2008) offers the â€Å"Corruption Continuum,† which details how organizations can become corrupt through(1) administrative indifference toward integrity, (2) ignoring obvious ethical problems, and creating a (3) hypocrisy and fear dominated culture, all leading to (4) a survival of  Ã‚  the fittest approach by individual employees (who will commit unethical acts to protect  themselves).In any organization, there are those who will almost always make ethical choices,  those who will usually make unethical ones, and those who can be i nfluenced one way or the other. The best course of action is to reward those in the first group and identify  those in the second group and encourage them to find other employment or at least remove them from temptation. Then organizational leaders must create an atmosphere for  the third group that encourages ethical decision making.This can be done by promoting  ethical administrators, rewarding morally courageous behavior, and providing clear and powerful organizational policies that emphasize worthwhile goals and honest means. (Pollock, J 2010 Ethical Dilemmas and Decisions in Criminal Justice Seven Edition) References Pollock, J. (2010) Ethical Dilemmas and Decisions in Criminal Justice Sixth Edition Retrieved June 3, 2012 Denton (2011) Ethics & Leadership in Criminal Justice Retrieved June 3, 2012 from http://www. ppapers. com/essays/Leadership-Skills-For-The-Criminal-Justice/818941 Weaver, G. R (2006) ‘‘Virtue in Organizations: Moral Identity as a Foundation for Moral Retrieved June 3, 2012 from http://media. wiley. com/product_data/excerpt /67/ EH EP 0017 /EHEP001767-2. pdf Pollock, J (2010) Ethical Dilemmas and Decisions in Criminal Justice Seven Edition Retrieved June 3, 2012 from http://www. scribd. com/doc/63772532/Ethical-Dilemmas-and-Decisions-in-Criminal-Justice

Record Controls

Record Controls Valerie Chacon Axia College November 21st, 2010 HCR 210 Lisa Israel Today, there are many security measures within small, medium and large facilities. There are secure rooms, passwords, access codes and other things to keep records safe. If these security measures are not in place, then the medical facility could be at risk for letting confidential information get to the wrong people. There are differences and similarities in ways each medical facility handles their medical records. Small, medium, and large facilities seem to use similar security measures within an electronic record filing system.Most facilities use passwords, usernames, and access codes. With this said, only certain staff members have these access codes. Sometimes, one person has these access codes depending on how big the facility is. Sometimes files are only kept in a filing cabinet that is locked, along with the building locked when no one is there. Many small facilities seem to still use paper re cords. Paper records can have their positives and negatives. Small facilities do not have many doctors which in this case they know many of their patients on a personal level. This is a good aspect, especially for looking up records.Many small facilities keep their records in a secured room that is locked. Some facilities use only one person with one key, and others have access codes to get into the secured room. Depending on the facility and how many patient records there are, they all follow certain rules in their facility. Some facilities follow color coded record filing, numeric filing, and alphabetical filing. Some facilities keep their record in one place, other facilities have 2. If it is paper filing and they have 2 secure rooms, usually one room is for current patients and the other room is for old patient record.Records are kept from eight to ten year, depending on facilities regulations, and then destroyed of properly according to privacy information (Robinson, 2010). Wit h smaller facilities, this may happen more often than a larger facility, most likely because they use the paper filing system. With medium to large facilities, these facilities seem to use the electronic filing system. Although some medium and large facilities still use paper filing, more medium and large facilities have and are converting to electronic filing. The electronic filing systems seem to be more convenient for larger facilities.The hassle of so many patient records in paper form can be huge responsibility. This is why electronic filing is so much easier. The less hassle for records management, the less stress. Many larger facilities agree that electronic filing is much easier and can help control the records management. The storage for electronic filing is much easier too. The only downside with electronic filing is the unknown system downs for restoring or upgrading system requirements (Robinson, 2010). Sometimes when the system goes down, they may have to write down rec ords until systems are up and running.Each facility follows a strict policy in the scenario. Large facilities handle more patient records than a small and medium facility. There are not many facilities that still have paper records management. If security procedures are not followed correctly then there can be major problems. Mix up’s of patient records are at stake, patient confidentiality could be at stake. All facilities follow procedures to ensure patient privacy. In certain cases that a file may be lost or stolen, there are rules regulations and consequences on behalf of the facility. This is why it is so important for security measure to be met.It is the law that all confidential information is secured and locked, whether it is in a room or a filing cabinet. If a fire were to happen, patient records could be damaged, this is why it is equally important to have a sprinkler system set up in the case of a fire (Green & Bowie,  2005). No matter if the facility is smal l medium or large, each medical facility follows security Measure’s to ensure record confidentiality and keeping records safe. The follow specific guidelines and if these guidelines are not followed, serious consequences can come to the facility and the staff members.If it is a single staff member that is not following guidelines, this staff member can be written up and/or subject to termination from their job/career. To ensure this does not happen, many facilities offer training and most need a degree in having a job like this.References Robinson, S. (2010, November  7). Interview Data Thread: Group C []. Message posted to http://University of Phoenix class forum, HCR/210 Patient Records: Keeping it Real course website. Green, M. A. , & Bowie, M. J. (2005). Essentials pf Health Information Management: Principles and Practices. Clifton Park , NY: Thomson Felmar Learning.

Should Abortions be Illegal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Should Abortions be Illegal - Essay Example As such, abortion should be illegal given that it does not provide a long term solution to the recurrent problem of unwanted pregnancies especially among the teenagers. Abortion should not be treated as an option but concerted efforts should be made to address the root cause of this problem in every society. Against this background, this argumentative essay is going to argue in favour of the topic which suggests that abortion should be illegal. However, the second part will look at the topic from the other angle where some advocates argue that abortion should be legalised. A synthesis will be drawn at the end of the paper to summarise the main points discussed and defend the argument in favour of the topic. Tribe (1992, p. 3) posits to the effect that â€Å"no right is more basic than the right to live and the untimely death of a young child is among life’s most awful tragedies.† To cause such a death to an innocent soul is a great wrong which deserves to be treated wit h the contempt. The right to life is an inalienable right that is conferred to every person upon birth. However, in some instances, unborn babies are denied this right before even seeing the earth as a result of aborted pregnancies. Basically, abortion can be described as the process of terminating or ending unwanted pregnancies (Wharton, 1989). ... cle/12504-teen-pregnancy-rates-usa/>, The Center for Disease control says â€Å"that the United States has the highest teen pregnancy rate in the industrialized world whereby one-third of girls get pregnant before the age of 20.† It also states that Teenpregnancy.org, a site which is managed by the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy has revealed that about 750  000 teen pregnancies are reported annually where eight out of ten of these are not planned. The trend is similar in many countries and abortion should not be treated as a viable option given that teenagers for instance indulge in sexual activities without properly weighing the consequences hence they should not have any legal right to terminate life unless otherwise it is beyond their control. There are many reasons why unplanned pregnancies occur and carelessness is one of them (Gutman, 1987). Some teenagers have misguided perceptions that they want to believe that having sex at an early age ca n prove their manhood or woman hood which is not correct. As a result, unplanned pregnancies are reported and this cannot be the problem of the unborn fetus in the womb given that it is life already developing which must not be ended unceremoniously. It is the responsibility of the mother in particular to ensure that they take preventive measures against unwanted pregnancies. For instance, the use of contraceptives such as pill as well as condoms is another viable way of preventing unwanted pregnancies. Instead of preferring abortion as the last resort, both men and women need to take responsibility for contraception since this is the best alternative to abortion. Abortion is therefore considered as murder hence cannot be condoned. No society likes abortion and the main task is to enable the women to

Citizen Kane (Movie) Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Citizen Kane ( ) - Movie Review Example but miserable person who has accomplished nothing; in fact, his political dream does not come true and at his death he cannot avoid to remember the only time in his childhood when he received true joy from riding a sled with a ‘Rosebud tag’ on it. Most critics have figured out Kane as a man who had no political ideology, but only a man guided by greed for power in the society. This seems to explain his misery despite being a rich politician at the time he finally loses his last breath. This article seeks to examine the relationship between Kane’s political ambitions and the media influence on the public that was evident during his time. Through flashbacks that cover the political life of Kane, it is noticeable that he lacks a political ideology while pursuing his political ambition, but uses the media to pursue his own personal goals. After starting a journalist firm, he employs a captivated writer, Thompson, who is proficient in writing sensitive material. He is featured on every cover page of the magazines and newspapers that Thompson produces for the public (Carringer 42). The aim of this kind of media coverage is to keep Kane a relevant political icon throughout the state by making him famous and popular among the people. The newspaper portrays him as prominent owner of newspaper producing firm, radio stations and much more wealth. He seems to bear the opinion that political success is based on personal wealth, rather than political ideology. Consequently, he does not have any public interest at heart or any political goal that would impact on the population he expects to serve. By failing to devise any politic al goal or even strategy, it is possible to regard Kane as a man who lack all the dimensions of an ideologist in his political war. Secondly, Kane is prompt to influence the minds of the people by using media power as a platform to campaign for his election. In a conversation with his mistress, Susan, he boasts on his authority to control and

Business Continuity Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business Continuity - Assignment Example It emphasizes assessing varied risks that a business faces while performing different operational functions. Finally, ‘maintaining business continuity’ is all about responding effectually towards any adverse situation, faced by a business during the conduct of various functions. This focuses on following methodical business procedures for reaping benefits (Armstrong, 2012). The above stated conceptions can be better understood with the example of improving system along with process resilience in relation to a ‘disaster recovering planning’ project. In this similar context, it can be affirmed that ‘running business continuity’ will focus on identifying the biggest risks and the mitigation costs as well. In respect to the concept of ‘developing business continuity’, the factors like developing effective continuity plans and using the valuable resources play a vital role. The notion of ‘testing business continuity’ in relation to the above example can be better explained as identifying the threats in accordance with varied risk levels and reviewing the results of such threats. Finally, ‘maintaining business continuity’ for the aforesaid example will emphasize empowering the project team and most importantly, updating project response procedures (Armstrong,

Enhancing Correctional and Rehabilitation Results in Prision Research Paper

Enhancing Correctional and Rehabilitation Results in Prision - Research Paper Example In hindsight, in the 1970s, it was viewed that inmates who undergo rehabilitation are being left off easy and advocating such rehabilitations were seen as naivety. It is interesting to perceive that as society has been evolving through the years the propensity for criminal activities have also increased. But through the years, society changed its perception that indeed prisons must prepare the inmates in their re-entry to the community and not just serve as establishments to lock them up and serve their due time. Omar (2001) stated that â€Å"it is the general consensus that the fundamental objective of corrections is rehabilitation, whether such institutions are prisons, juvenile centers and other types of correctional institutions†. He added that the treatment process is directed towards the eventual return to the community of the inmates as law abiding and socially productive citizens. It is therefore the ultimate goal of correction facilities to reduce recidivism. Gaes et al. (1998) establishes that education, vocational training, and prison labor programs have decent effects on not only reducing criminal recidivism but also increasing positive behavior in prison. Although it was concluded that sex offender interventions proved to have been the most problematic. Treatments and rehabilitation practices should be adjusted and fitted to specific offender deficits. It is also worth noting that juvenile interventions yield better and stronger results than adult rehabilitations. Gaes et al. (1998) focused on four domains of adult intervention; 1) cognitive skills training, 2) intensive in-prison drug treatment, 3) educational instruction, vocational, and industrial training, and 4) sex-offender treatment. Based on meta-analyses, qualitative analyses, and reviews of component elements of successful programs, it was established that the most success in terms of criminal recidivism was achieved through emphasis on cognitive and skill building techniques. This approach is able to correct impulsivity by teaching consequential thinking, fatalistic thinking by practicing assessment of the role their thinking has affected their actions, antisocial behavior by teaching them skills for them to be prosocial, and social adjustments by teaching self-control techniques (Gaes et al., 1998) Aside from behavioral deficiencies, it is also an established fact that individuals under the influence of illegal drugs have greater tendency to commit crimes, and Gaes et al. (1998) notes that the level of crime is dramatically amplified by the use of drugs. It is of then a necessity in correctional facilities to incorporate drug rehabilitations for the inmates so as for them not to regress back to using such substances once they are released to society. While this approach is successful in reducing drug relapse of the criminals for up to 18months upon release, proper monitoring and probationary status must also be implemented to avoid recidivism. Gaes et al. ( 1998) also cites that prison education and work programs improve the inmates’ institutional behavior and promote prosocial activities after the release. By increasing the inmates’ functional literacy, the chances of having a lawful job opportunities also increases. Such an approach also promotes the maturity of the individuals, equipping them with better decision-making skills that are vital for them to keep them away from crime after release. Gaes et al. (199

A Management-Style Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

A Management-Style Report - Essay Example Strategy has been stated to be a guide or idea which provides consistency to the resolutions made collectively by the organisation. Strategic management refers to the process of efficiently and innovatively employing the resources of production such as manpower, machinery and materials in an organisational process. This effective and effectual engagement of resources would enable the organisation to develop effectual strategies which would facilitate the company to earn profits along with competency. Stating precisely, strategies are developed to enable the organisation to survive in the future (Scribner, 2011). From a broad perspective, strategic management is considered to be a process which entails five different aspects. Firstly it involves the need of recognising the requirements of an organisation that is necessary to be achieved. With this purpose, the objectives of the organisation are taken into concern and then the identified requirements are associated with the objectives. Secondly, an analysis is conducted of the internal as well as the external business environment so as to obtain an understanding of the factors which can be either termed as positive or negative. Thirdly, a strategy is being developed based on the evaluation and recognition of the problems. The strategy is designed according to the priority of the issues. Fourthly, the strategy is planned to be put into practice by gathering the needed resources as well as commitments required to proceed with the strategies with the purpose of attaining the desired outcomes. Last but not the least is the stage of screening or monitoring those strategies. Monitoring the strategies also helps in understanding their effectiveness and making any needed alterations (Grant, 2005; Scribner, 2011). The aim of the paper is to assess the present strategic position of Toyota along with ascertaining its resources and capabilities which helps the company to attain competitive advantage over its competitors and ensure its existence in the industry. However, certain strategic issues of the company would also be assessed which could have an adverse affect on the success of Toyota in the long run and certain recommendations would be made in that context. 2.0. Toyota’s Current Strategic Position 2.1. Toyota’s Environment Strategy refers to the process of harmonising an organisation’s competencies and resources with the prospects that are observed to take place in the external surroundings. Toyota is a Japanese car manufacturing company and mainly caters to the market of Japan. However, in the period of 1980 and 1990, Toyota planned to invade the car market of North America. It was successful in capturing the North American market along with entering the Western European market as well which was followed with the intention to be a global leader. Soon Toyota was seen to capture the U.S. market in-spite of the presence of strong players like DaimlerChrysler, General Motors (G M), and Ford. The key to this

The oil Price crisis in Britain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The oil Price crisis in Britain - Essay Example In The Daily Telegraph publication (The Daily Telegraph: 20 June 2008), executive foreign editor Con Coughlin asserted that "as things stand, protecting their precious reserves, rather than providing the world with cheaper oil, appears to be their main priority". In a similar tone The Times' chief foreign affairs commentator Bronwen Maddox described the Opec summit in Jeddah "a Saudi show, to deliver a Saudi message" (The Times: 25 June 2008), stating that , "Before Sunday's meeting, King Abdullah bin Abdelaziz al-Saud said that the kingdom was resolved to prevent oil prices from rising 'in an unjustified and abnormal manner', while announcing an increase in production too small to have any such impact." In other twist , Con Coughlin, The Telegraph's executive foreign editor, argued that the country is operating to capacity in the article published in The Telegraph (The Telegraph: 20 June 2008). He mentioned that, "the Saudis announced their intention to increase production by another 500,000 barrels per day, which will bring total production to 9.7 million barrels - the kingdom's highest ever level. And that is about the upper limit of what the Saudis can produce for any sustained period." However, "the Saudis will only produce more oil if they believe it is in their interests to do so," The somewhat incongruous perspective by Coughlin presents connotations tending to place blame over the oil price crisis on Saudi Arabia. Other opinion slants presented in the media coverage of the oil price crisis in Britain have focused on the reality of rising demands for oil which has not been succored on commensurate production levels. The BP Statistical Review OF the world Energy quoted in the Energy and Capital e-letter for August 2008 presents that, "It's no secret anymore that for every nine barrels of oil we consume, we are only discovering one."(The BP Statistical Review of World Energy August 11th, 2008). The writer in the article mentions that there is unprecedented oil usage rate on a global scale which has not been sustained by any feasible production increase measures. "The world is addicted to oil. In just 8 years, it's projected the world will be consuming nearly 50,000 gallons of oil every second. By that time, the world won't be able to meet the projected demand... for one simple reason: We're using up oil at breakneck speed. And it's also no secret that official oil reserve numbers furnished by OPEC member governments have been fudged for years. The International Energy Agency (IEA) even admitted to knowing about some of OPEC's wizards cooking their books." (Opcit) The electronic title also provides some sweeping predictions in an advertising blurb aimed at getting readers to subscribe to the e-letter. Some of the predictions enlisted are; Why we're never going to see oil priced at $40 a barrel ever again, what we learned from the 1970s oil crisis, and where the future of oil really stands... How oil reserve supplies will tighten, prices will continue jumping, and the world economy will feel the squeeze... The 3 best ways to capitalize on the investment opportunities of a post-oil economy. In another reportage Independent columnist Dominic Lawson vindicated Saudi Arabia (and Opec) from blame in the current price crisis, writing that "far from operating as a

Faculty of management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Faculty of management - Essay Example According to her, Canadian businesses have stagnant growth because they not only lack resources but they have also not enough motivation for growth. Canadian Banks have conservative notions about businesses that discourage people to be creative. She nevertheless thinks that some of the government initiatives like Canada Export Development and Sustainable development Technologies have encouraged businesses to exploit new opportunities of growth in emerging economies. I agree with Allen that businesses must innovate to compete and expand. But at the same time, government must create facilitating environment for growth. In the current environment of advancing technology and globalization, business has become highly competitive. Moreover, process of globalization has changed the dynamics of global business. Emerging markets of South East Asia, Middle East and BRIC countries offer huge potential for businesses. They are high growth markets with high income where demand for new product can be easily created (Hook, 2001). This is a very important factor that must be exploited by the business community. Growth of business contributes to the growth and development of nations. Thus, it becomes imperative that businesses must constantly make efforts to expand and grow. R&D facilities promote innovation of ideas, new product development and innovation in business processes for greater productivity. Furthermore, innovative approach and resource based strategy provide the firms with unique value creating capabilities that give them distinct advantage against their rivals. As such, they emerge as critical elem ents that facilitate businesses to compete successfully and grow even in adverse circumstances (Coombe and Georghiou, 2002). Indeed, government initiatives are major incentives for businesses to look for new opportunities and motivate them for diversifying their interests. But unless and until they are backed by conducive environment of growth,

University Degree Essay Example for Free

University Degree Essay Rapid development of technologies and current economic crisis make people worry about their future live and professional realization, showing with no doubt the importance of education for further successful living. Knowledge is power and the more you know the easier you will get the desired job, the better you will be paid and the better you will live. Recently, higher education has almost become a must in our society. First of all employers always prefer to hire applicants with a university degree than others with lower education. They know that these candidates have a complete up to date qualification. For example, people with bachelor or master degree have over 90 per cent more chance to be invited to an interview and thus to get the job they applied for. In addition, income plays a major role in everyone’s life. Earning more money makes people live better and happier. University graduates are well paid professionals who are qualified in various fields and industries. They are high valued and sought after in the labour market. So, competing companies attract these professionals by offering them higher salaries, bonuses, company mobile phones, laptops, cars etc. Last but not least, people are often afraid of redundancy and dismissal just, because they turned forty or fifty. But it is a fact that educated individuals are less endangered of unemployment. For instance, no employer will give up his valuable frame, because he or she is getting older and this is so, because important for him is his or her knowledge, experience and skills and not his or her appearance. Therefore, university degree gives its owner a secure life and provides a long career. Taking everything into account, I believe that everyone who wants to have a good life should have a university education. Money is nothing and everything. Even if we have the best family poverty and unemployment will bring trouble and unhappiness in our family. Our future and successful living depends on our education.

Adaptive Market Hypothesis and Behavioural Finance

Adaptive Market Hypothesis and Behavioural Finance An Essay on the Relationship between Andrew Lo’s Adaptive Market Hypothesis and Behavioural Finance 1.0  Introduction When in 1936, Keynes compared financial markets to a beauty contest where competitors had to guess who the most popular choice would be, he did not imagined that economists would become fascinated with the contest for explaining the efficiency or inefficiency of that market. Indeed, the global financial crisis of 2008 brought to bare the bitter rivalry between traditional finance theorists and their behavioural counterpart over the realism of assumptions explaining competitive market equilibrium, rational choice theory and rational expectations. Prior to the crisis, the dominant view in mainstream economics and finance (as exemplified in the assumptions of efficient market hypothesis) had been that: individuals are broadly rational, risk averse, maximize their expected utility of wealth, and follow the tenets of subjective probability theory. Hence, the capital market is seen as perfect and generating financial returns which are unforecastable. To put it more aptly in the words of Fa ma (1970), â€Å"prices fully reflect all available information†, an idea that has come to be known as market efficiency. However, the fallout from the financial crisis saw a bourgeoning interest in behavioural economics due mainly to the failings of traditional economic theory to explain many observed market anomalies. Behavioural economists pointed out a number of basic logical mistakes in the efficiency reasoning, which they attributed to behavioural biases and cognitive limitations, which are universal to human decision-making under uncertainty. Some of the documented biases cited in Lo (2004) include overconfidence, loss aversion, overreaction, psychological accounting, herding, miscalibration of probabilities, hyperbolic discounting and regrets. Accordingly, the behaviourists opine that these biases provided evidence that markets are not only inefficient, but that its participants are often irrational. Herein lies the intellectual crux of the debate, which has continue to shape the study and practice of economics and finance. Indeed, while some economists may want to uphold their firm beliefs in market efficiency and rationality, others may as well seek alternative approaches in behavioural finance. Between these two approaches, however, there may be economists who seek for a compromise. This is where Andrew Lo classic work on the adaptive market hypothesis readily falls in. This essay proceeds as follow; section two explain the Adaptive Markets Hypothesis, its theoretical postulations and relationship with behavioural finance, section three critically examine this relationship, and section four concludes the essay. 2.0The Adaptive Markets Hypothesis (AMH) Explained Andrew Lo’s adaptive market hypothesis was based on evolutionary principles of competition, mutation, reproduction and natural selection in biology. Lo, in his 2004 seminal article on the Adaptive Market Hypothesis, suggests that â€Å"individual makes choices based on past experience and their ‘best guesses as to what might be optimal, and they learn by receiving positive or negative reinforcement from the outcomes, (and) if they receive no such reinforcement, they do not learn.† Thus, the AMH implied that investor behaviours such as overreaction, loss aversion, overconfidence, and other behavioural biases are constructed and shaped by a dynamic interplay between investors’ internal cognition and their external environment that then produces evolutionary traits, in which heuristics develop, transform, boom or die out depending on the market settings. As an example, if a market setting is stable, heuristics is likely to yield an optimal or rational choice for investors. While an unstable market environment characterized by risks and uncertainties, yield various forms of behavioural biases. In such instances, ‘rational’ decisions are always evolving as investors’ develop a new set of heuristics in reaction to a changing market environment. These views was developed further by Lo (2005), where he highlighted the main propositions of the AMH to include that: Individuals act in their own self-interest. Individuals make mistakes. Individuals learn and adapt. Competition drives adaptation and innovation. Natural selection, shapes market ecology. Evolution determines market dynamics. In this context, Andrew Lo’s AMH can be said to revolve around three main processes of heuristics development, learning, and an adaptation process of decision making, whose combined impacts on financial institutions help determine market efficiencies, and the waxing and waning of investment products, industries, and even individual and institutional fortunes (Lo, 2005). 2.1The Adaptive Market Hypothesis and Behavioural Finance The uncertainty associated with efficient market hypothesis had led behavioural finance scholars to offer a departure from fully rational behaviours in finance models to behavioural biases or heuristics amongst investors that arguably explains human decision makings under uncertainty. Indeed, most empirical literature on behavioural finance have explained well-recognised market anomalies which contrast standard finance theories. Some of these studies include Kahneman and Tversky (1979), Bernard and Thomas (1990), Benartzi and Thaler (1995), Mehra and Prescott (2008), etc. however, none of this literature was able to present a coherent alternative model that could match the dominancy of standard finance literature. Fama (1998) aptly capture this non-coherence in their arguments when he said, â€Å"a problem in developing an overall perspective on long-term return studies is that they rarely test a specific alternative to market efficiency, instead the alternative hypothesis is vague, market inefficiency.† Thus, Andrew Lo’s AMH was one main attempt at providing a philosophical and theoretical foundation for behavioural finance. Indeed, one stated objective in Lo’s 2004 classic article was to reconcile understandings from efficient market hypothesis with behavioural finance and psychology. Like behavioural finance, AMH explains loss aversion, equity price premium, overreaction, momentum based trading strategies, and other heuristic driven biases by the fact that in a dynamic market environment, investors develop new sets of mental frames or heuristics to solve various economic challenges. Specifically, using Herbert Simon’s notion of bounded rationality, Lo (2004) pointed out that the presence and persistence of behavioural biases can be best understood when we appreciate the fact that cooperation, competition, market-making behaviour, general equilibrium, and disequilibrium dynamics are all adaptations designed to address certain environment challenges for the huma n species and then view these forces from the lens of evolutionary biology. Besides, Lo posits that fear and greed – which behaviourists often cite as a basis for irrational decision making are the products of evolutionary forces and adaptive behaviours that enhance the odds of survival. In this situation, emotions may be seen as an incentive system that determines investors’ behaviour and prompt them to engage in a cost-benefit analysis of various investment plans available to them. Consequently, there are no fixed rules for evaluating trading strategies as depending on market conditions, investors can engage in trade; truncate it at various points and observe the consequences of their actions. For example, where investors are timely in their investment decisions, they come back and dominate the market; if on the other hand, they are poor in market timing, they are easily eased out of the market. Hence, according to Lo supposition, market efficiency can-not be appraised in a vacuum, because is extremely context dependent and dynamic, thus resu lting in a cycle of a mental frame selection process in which investors grow, mutate and thrive or face extinction (Lo, 2004). Moreover, under the AMH, market strategies evolve to adapt to an ever changing market environment, and is driven by profit opportunities, which according to Lo, is the main source on which market participants depend for their survival. One other main aspect of behavioural finance which the AMH shed light on is the existence of arbitrage opportunities. According to Lo, arbitrage opportunities appear and disappear due to adaptive responses to a changing market environment. In this fashion, investors adapt to match new economic challenges, by developing new heuristics that are necessary to evaluating any investment strategy and which in turn depends upon its survival value. Although profitability and risk reduction values are also important factors to consider, Lo pointed out that these factors come after investors have undergone this fundamental market test. So what are the implications of the AMH for efficient markets and behavioural finance? Lo (2004) briefly outlines these implications to include that The equity risk premium are non-constant over time, but changes according to the recent path of the stock market. Risk/reward relations are nonlinear and non-stable. Arbitrage opportunities exist from time to time Investment strategy, waxes and then wane depending on the environment Adaptation and innovation are keys to survival Survival is the only objective that matters. 3.0AMH or EMH? An evaluation Fama (1998) emphasize that any alternative model to market efficiency ought to follow standard scientific rule, and should itself be potentially rejectable by empirical tests. Thus, in evaluating the relationship between AMH and behavioural finance, it is essential to consider an empirical test of how AMH differ significantly from the efficient market hypothesis (EMH), which the behaviourists seek to discard. While various tests of market efficiency had been designed over the years using standard financial models in EMH, tests of AMH are relatively few given that the hypothesis has yet to become part of the mainstream of financial economics. However, an increasing number of studies had reported results which seems consistent with the AMH. Some of these studies include Neely, et al (2009) and Kim, et al (2011). Whereas Neely, et al (2009) found some regularities in profit opportunities that appear and disappears in a foreign exchange market, Kim, et al (2011) found strong evidence tha t return predictability is driven by changing market conditions. These findings implied that testable implications of AMH can be done by testing how the level of efficiency in a market varies significantly over time. Furthermore, another possible way to conceptualise a test of the AMH may be to investigate whether investment decisions are made based on selectivity and market timing since evolutionary principle implied that natural selection shapes market ecology. In this context, Hoffman, et al (2013) found some evidence of market learning during the financial crisis. As a matter of fact, conventional econometric tests for market efficiency using formal asset pricing models such as Sharpe 1964 CAPM and Merton’s 1973 discrete time version of ICAPM would have been relevant alternative models to investigate these testable implications of AMH. Therefore, rather than see Lo’s AMH as a behavioural alternative to market efficiency, it is better regarded as another strand of efficient market hypothesis. 4.0Conclusion This essay has discussed the adaptive market hypothesis and examined its relationship with behavioural finance. We conclude that whereas the AMH offers a philosophical foundation for analysing various behavioural anomalies described by behavioural finance, its theoretical underpinning however, reflects that of the efficient market hypothesis. References Benartzi, S., and Thaler, R., (1995), â€Å"Myopic loss aversion and the equity premium puzzle†, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 110: 73-92. Bernard, V., and Thomas, J., (1990), â€Å"Evidence that stock prices do not fully reflect the implications of current earnings for future earnings†, Journal of Accounting and Economics, vol. 13: 305-340. Fama, E., (1970), â€Å"Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work†, Journal of Finance, vol. 25(2): 383–417. Fama, E., (1998), â€Å"Market efficiency, long-term returns, and behavioral finance, Journal of Financial Economics, vol. 49(3): 283-306. Hoffman, A.I., Thomas, P., and Joost, M.E., (2013), â€Å"Individual investor perceptions and behaviour during the financial crisis†, Journal of Banking and Finance, vol. 37(1): 60-74 Kahneman, D., and Tversky, A., (1979), â€Å"Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk†, Econometrica, vol. 47: 263–291. Kim, J., Lim, K., and Shamsuddin, A., (2009), â€Å"Stock return predictability and adaptive markets hypothesis: Evidence from century-long U.S. data†, Unpublished. Lo, A., (2004), â€Å"The Adaptive Markets Hypothesis: Market Efficiency from an Evolutionary Perspective†, Journal of Portfolio Management, 30th Anniversary Issue; 15-29 Lo, A., (2005), â€Å"Reconciling efficient markets with behavioural finance: the adaptive markets hypothesis†, Journal of Investment Consulting, vol. 7(2): 21-44. Mehra, R., and Prescott, E., (2008), â€Å"The equity premium: ABC’s Handbook of the Equity Risk- Premium†, North Holland, Amsterdam: The Netherlands. Merton, R., (1973), â€Å"An intertemporal capital asset pricing model†, Econometrica, vol. 41: 867–887 Neely, C., Weller, P., and Ulrich, J., (2009), â€Å"The Adaptive Markets Hypothesis: Evidence from the Foreign Exchange Market† Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, vol. 44(2): 467-488. Sharpe, W., (1964), â€Å"Capital asset prices: a theory of market equilibrium under conditions of risk†, Journal of Finance, vol. 19(3): 425-442

E-commerce :: essays research papers

E-commerce. Does this sounds familiar to you? Of course it does but most of us doesn’t really know and understand what is all about. We know that everything today is growing ‘e’ now but we really don’t know what does it mean by that. E-commerce means electronic commerce, which means that commerce, is now electronic. In general term, trading electronically or you can say trade on the internet is called e-commerce. This concept has been widely used in the market now, since last 2 years and almost each and every company is coming out with this new formula to stay in the market. Almost each and every superstore has their web site and facility to their customers to buy products online. In the 21st century each and every individual among us will be running out of time and nobody wants to go out to shop and waste 4 to 5 hours rather every one of us would prefer to shop online at the same price and get delivered at our door step. The electronic retail marketplace dema nds the highest attention to visual graphic design quality, coupled with the ability to construct an electronic catalog. This catalog must support multiple layouts and instant credit card transaction processing. There are certain advantages and disadvantages of trading on the net. Advantages ? One can buy each and every product sitting at home. ? It saves lot of time. ? Sometimes it saves lots of money too. For example, “ when I registered for this fall term I visited the book store and figured out that the total cost including all the books was $ 390 and when I surfed on the net, the same books I bought on the net for $ 320 including shipping and it was at my doorstep in two days. Thus, I saved 70 bucks sitting at home and saving my time.'; ? Also when the companies start their business they give lots of gifts and promotions for the customers who buy from their web site which one cannot find in stores at all the times. ? Even each and every newspaper in the market is now online so you don’t need to buy from the newstand and save the same money which you can use for different purpose. ? These shopping web sites also offer points towards everything that you purchase online and later on you can redeem this points to shop something free or use it towards your sky miles and fly free around the world. E-commerce :: essays research papers E-commerce. Does this sounds familiar to you? Of course it does but most of us doesn’t really know and understand what is all about. We know that everything today is growing ‘e’ now but we really don’t know what does it mean by that. E-commerce means electronic commerce, which means that commerce, is now electronic. In general term, trading electronically or you can say trade on the internet is called e-commerce. This concept has been widely used in the market now, since last 2 years and almost each and every company is coming out with this new formula to stay in the market. Almost each and every superstore has their web site and facility to their customers to buy products online. In the 21st century each and every individual among us will be running out of time and nobody wants to go out to shop and waste 4 to 5 hours rather every one of us would prefer to shop online at the same price and get delivered at our door step. The electronic retail marketplace dema nds the highest attention to visual graphic design quality, coupled with the ability to construct an electronic catalog. This catalog must support multiple layouts and instant credit card transaction processing. There are certain advantages and disadvantages of trading on the net. Advantages ? One can buy each and every product sitting at home. ? It saves lot of time. ? Sometimes it saves lots of money too. For example, “ when I registered for this fall term I visited the book store and figured out that the total cost including all the books was $ 390 and when I surfed on the net, the same books I bought on the net for $ 320 including shipping and it was at my doorstep in two days. Thus, I saved 70 bucks sitting at home and saving my time.'; ? Also when the companies start their business they give lots of gifts and promotions for the customers who buy from their web site which one cannot find in stores at all the times. ? Even each and every newspaper in the market is now online so you don’t need to buy from the newstand and save the same money which you can use for different purpose. ? These shopping web sites also offer points towards everything that you purchase online and later on you can redeem this points to shop something free or use it towards your sky miles and fly free around the world.

Euthanasia Essay: The Correct Choice for Many -- Euthanasia Physician

Euthanasia - The Correct Choice for Many    Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness are words to live by despite any obstacles that any person might endure. A person should live in a constant understanding that life will always have struggles, but one should feel as though their life is worth living. A person has the right to believe that life should always be composed of the capability to be spiritual, physical, emotional, and to be a social being all at the same time, therefore the quality of life is far more valuable than the length of time under any circumstances. Euthanasia is acceptable under the impression that a person will never again, and does not have the ability to live a quality of life. A life filled with quality means a different thing for each individual. For some people as long as they are able to make money, live in a great house, are able to walk, talk, see, and hear, their life is filled with everything they need to live richly. For others, as long as they can be free, be happy and function with a little help from technology (such as pills, or an artificial limb), they are living life that incorporates high quality into their life. For example, Robert Powell, who has permanent paraplegia once said Physician-assisted suicide is contrary to the concept of equality for everyone. Very often the group most targeted by physician-assisted suicide is the disabled community because the "quality of life" of its members is deemed to be "poor" by people outside the community. Robert once said, As a disabled person, I enjoy life just as much as anybody else does. I can do things that just about anybody else can do. It is a matter of [how you] perceive "quality of life." You ask one person about his definiti... ...rdin, Joseph C. A Moral Vision For America. Ed. John P. Langan. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1998. Higginson, Richard. Dilemmas: A Christian Approach To Moral Decision Making. Louisville: Westminster/ John Knox Press, 1988. Hilton, Bruce. First Do Not Harm: Wrestling With The New Medicine's Life And Death Dilemmas. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1991. O'Rourke, Kevin D., and Dennis Brodeur, PhD. Medical Ethics: Common Ground For Understanding. St. Louis: The Catholic Health Association Of The United States, 1986. Rogers, John, ed. Medical Ethics, Human Choices: A Christian Perspective. Scottdale: Herald Press,1988. author unknown. "It"s OK- isn't it?". Euthanasia: killing the dying. 30 Nov. 1999. http://www.euthanasia.com/case3.html author unknown. "Euthanasia Facts." Euthanasia.com. 5 Jun. 1996. http://www.iaetf.org/mm.html

Arising of Magic Realism Through Allusions to the Bible and Tragedians

Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s novel, One Hundred Years of Solitude, is a novel often associated with magic realism. Throughout the novel, the idea of magic realism is promoted through intertext examples of The Bible. Magic realism is defined as an artistic style in which magical elements or irrational scenarios appear in an otherwise realistic or "normal" setting. The many intertextual examples throughout the work are alluded from outside sources such as the Bible and the tragedians of the Greeks and Romans. These allusions not only strengthen the novel, but further correlate them with the idea of magic realism. Magic realism, as defined by Wendy Faris, contains five key elements which must be present for this component to ring true in a piece of literature. The first key element is the novel contains â€Å"†¦something we cannot explain according to the laws of the universe as we know them† (Faris 167). Throughout the novel, several examples which make this constituent true are present. For example, when Jose Arcadia Buendia’s murder occurs and his blood runs through the streets to Ursula’s home, Marquez writes, â€Å"A trickle of blood came out under the door, crossed the living room, went out into the street, continued on in a straight line across the uneven terraces, went down steps and climbed up curbs†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Marquez 144). In reality, as readers, it is known that blood cannot travel long distances or climb objects. Remedios the Beauty’s accession to Heaven is another form in which a particular scene cannot be explained by particular laws a s we know them. Marquez writes â€Å"Amaranta felt a mysterious trembling in the lace on her petticoats and she tried to grasp the sheet so that she would not fall down at the instant in which Remedi... ...n theme found throughout many fiction novels. According to Faris’ five key elements, this novel is indeed a tale of enchanting pragmatism. The novel’s intertextual examples developed by character similarities and actual events from the Bible and Greek mythology and tragedies are woven in the novel in such a way that the reader is oblivious to the fact that they truly exist. As the future scurries upon us, the theme of magic realism will continue to flourish many novels to come. Works Cited Access Bible, The. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Fitzgerald, Robert. Translator Homer. The Iliad. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 2007. Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. One Hundred Years of Solitude. New York: Harper Perennial, 1998. Zamora, Louis Parkinson and Wendy Faris. Magical Realism: Theory, History,Community. Durham: Duke University Press, 1995.

Pablo Picasso

Picasso works were influenced by Yawners Turbid De Hernandez Professor Michael Cain English Composition II April 10, 2013 Many of Picasso works are influenced by his father who was a painter, for the death of his close friend Carols Cameras, and also for the World War I (Spanish civil war- Queering). Picasso love for art was somewhat genetic. His father, Jose Uric Balsas, was a painter as well and he loved art. Picasso was quick to express his desire for art.Picasso father began teaching him to draw and paint from early childhood, and by the time he was 13 years old his painting were already better than his father's. He lost all desire to do any schoolwork and instead spent the school days doodling in his notebook. Picasso recalled, â€Å"For being a bad student, they would send me to the cells, I loved it when they sent me there, because I could take a pad of paper and draw nonstop. † (A+E Television Networks, 1996-2013 ). Other influence in his work was when his close friend Carols Cameras died.He felt lonely and deeply depressed over the death of his friend, he painted scenes of poverty, isolation and anguish using exclusively blues and greens. This was Picasso Blue Period – 1901-1904. The subject matter for this period was poor people of the streets, beggars, prostitutes, drunks and poor gaunt people. He also depicted old and sick people and despairing lovers. The paintings showed themes of alienation, poverty and psychological depression. The mood of the paintings were somber and were influenced by his time in Spain, a visit to the Saint Lazars women's prison and also the suicide of his friend Cameras.Picasso most famous work, Queering is certainly the his most powerful political statement, painted as an immediate reaction to the Nazi's devastating casual mobbing practice on the Basque town of Queering during Spanish Civil War. Queering was a unique painting for Picasso to create because he never wanted to be influenced by the outside world. Historians argue that Queering is the exception and Picasso allowed him-self to be influenced and expressed his views. Queering shows the tragedies of war and the suffering it inflicts upon individuals, particularly innocent civilians.This work has gained a monumental status, becoming a perpetual reminder of the tragedies of war, an anti-war symbol, and an embodiment of peace. On completion Queering was displayed around the world in a brief tour, becoming famous and widely acclaimed. This tour helped bring the Spanish Civil War to the world's attention. Queering is a town in the province of Biscayne in Basque Country. During the Spanish Civil War, it was regarded as the northern bastion of the Republican resistance movement and the epicenter of Basque culture, adding to its significance as a target.In 26 April 1937, warplanes of the German Condor Legion, commanded by Colonel Wolfram von Ricocheted, bombed Queering for about two hours. After the bombing, Picasso was made aware of wha t had gone on in his country of origin. At the time, he was working on a mural for the Paris Exhibition to be held in the summer of 1937, commissioned by the Spanish Republican government. He deserted his original idea and on 1 May 1937, began on Queering. (www. Pillowcases. Org. , 2009-Present ) Picasso works were important in the Art. Picasso produced a painting unlike anything he or anyone else had ever painted before. Less Demolishes Davidson† (1907), is considered the precursor and inspiration of Cubism, an artistic Tyler pioneered by Picasso. By 1911 Picasso was recognized as the inventor of Cubism, which is breaking down objects or people in to somewhat geometric forms to form the composition. Then, from 1927 Picasso became caught up in a new philosophical and cultural movement, Surrealism, whose artistic manifestation was an offspring of his own cubism. Pablo Picasso stands alone as the most celebrated and influential painter of the twentieth century. His technical mas tery, creativity and profound empathy distinguish him as a revolutionary artist. Pablo Picasso English Version I am going to be talking about the famous Spanish painter Pablo Uric y Picasso. Pablo Uric y Picasso was a famous Spanish painter during the early sass's. He was also a famous sculptor, ceramicist, printmaker, and stage designer. He was most famous for his paintings. He painted in an abstract manner which changed the effects of the paintings. Picasso paintings are found in many museums. These painting are divided into many periods that correspond to his life. The first period was the blue period. This period had sad paintings in the color of blue and green.The second period was that of the pink period. During this period, his work was more cheery. The most famous painting of this time was the Boy With a Pipe. The third period was the African-Influenced Period. The paintings of this time were influenced by African artifacts. The most famous painting was that of The Decompiles Davidson. The next period was that of Cubism. This period had two parts. These were that of sy nthetic and analytical. Towards the final part of his painting career, Pablo Picasso came into classicism and surrealism.

French Lieutenant’s Woman Essay and Techniques Postmodernism

Examine how FLW represents a postmodern way of thinking. Postmodernism encompasses a reinterpretation of classical ideas, forms and practices and reflects and rejects the ideologies of previous movements in the arts. The postmodern movement has made way for new ways of thinking and a new theoretical base when criticising art, literature, sexuality and history. John Fowles’ 1969 historical bricolage, The French Lieutenant’s Woman, utilises the ideas of postmodern theorists such as Foucault, Barthes and Sartre amongst others to form a postmodern double-coded discourse which examines values inherent in the Victorian era from a twentieth century context. The novel’s use of intertextuality, metafiction and its irreverent attitude can be seen as a postmodern parody of Victorian fiction and the historical novel. For the purpose of examining the values and ideologies of the Victorian era in comparison to the postmodern paradigm, Victorian conventions are shown juxtaposed with postmodern techniques such as the authorial intrusion and alternative endings. Sarah Woodruff is different from other characters in The French Lieutenant’s Woman because she is epistemologically unique and because the narrator does not have access to her inner thoughts: in chapter 13 the author directly addresses the reader and states that he gives his characters the free will to determine their outcome in his novel. In a typical Victorian context, the protagonist’s inner conflict and motives would be exposed to the reader. Fowles denies his right as the author to impose definition of characters and in this way recognises â€Å"the age of Alain-Robbe Grillet and Roland Barthes† in bringing about the â€Å"death of the author† and the birth of the â€Å"reader†. The reader must interpret the text in ways (s)he views it and is forced to actively engage in the text. Fowles also introduces the author as a god-like figure (who turns back time) to craft multiple endings. He (the author) allows Sarah to act in an existentialist way to determine her outcome in the novel. It allows her to exercise her individuality, making her stand as a lone feminist figure amongst the tides of Victorian conventionality. The novel rewrites Victorian sexuality and in this way is an example of the way the sexual revolution of the 1960s is described in the historical novel of its time. Foucault described the Victorian period as the â€Å"golden age of repression† and he revises the notion that the Victorian era was silent on sexual matters in his works. Both Foucault and The French Lieutenant’s Woman claim that the forms of power and resistance are historically conditioned. For example, Sarah’s body is still institutionalised at the end of the novel since she appears only as a minor character in Rosetti’s house. The fact that Sarah is an anachronistic creation points to the idea that the novel is not about the Victorian era but a critique of relative values in their context. The metafictional structure of the novel successfully elucidates that Sarah seems to be subordinated in the patriarchal power of the contemporary narrator- it also endeavours to show that even the most emancipated groups during the Victorian period could not carry the liberation of women completely. This is a reflexion of what Fowles deems backward in the context of his society, and is apparent in Sarah’s repressed sexuality; and the blatant disparity regarding notions of female sexuality: Ernestina is always confined within the strict boundaries of patriarchal, societal convention- this is shown by the way she represses her sexual desire for Charles, being content with the most â€Å"chaste of kisses†. In this way the novel represents the truth as a form of pleasure in a Foucauldian sense. The institutionalisation of prostitutes, a somewhat clandestine pastime for Victorian gentlemen, is a situation that reflects the obvious hypocrisy of Victorian society when compared to Sarah’s situation. She (Sarah) is labelled a â€Å"fallen women† (hence her nickname â€Å"Tragedy†) and is ostracised because of her free-will and â€Å"feminine misconduct†. Charles finds her forwardness rather intimidating as it goes against his beliefs that the stratification of society is a vital element of social stability. This enforces Charles’ Darwinian beliefs about the social hierarchy (in reference to Social Darwinism). Darwinian evolution finds its expression by creating a new way of thinking. Fowles’ novel represents the great crisis of Darwinian Victorian England and traces its impact on society. Charles questions his religion in the Church, admitting he is agnostic, and the narrator himself labels Charles as having agnostic qualities. At the end of the novel Charles has become a â€Å"modern man† and Sarah the â€Å"hopeful monster† who feels alienated in Victorian culture without being able to conceptualise Charles’ intuitive understanding of her otherness and modernity. Darwinian evolution and nineteenth century psychology are portrayed in The French Lieutenant’s Woman as providing a corrective culture dominated by narrow minded Evangelicalism. Examples can be observed in Mrs Poulteney’s fickle attempts at being charitable, her dismissive attitude towards her duty to the church which is merely a habitual pastime for her, and her decision to dismiss Sarah. Then novel’s intertextuality is made up of its bricolage of history and fiction. Victorian epigraphs (and the irony used in them) serve to reconstruct the cultural milieu of the age using representations of facets of its literary world through the poetry of Hardy, Tennyson, Arnold and Clough. It provides a context within which the characters try to construct their subjectivities where they can emancipate themselves from the novel’s dominant ideology (this is an example of how Freud’s ideas about literature’s subjectivity are utilised). Also, the footnotes reinforce the author’s presence and allude to the fact that the author is omnipresent (in the novel). The alternative endings represent two types of Victorian endings and the last, a more postmodern, existentialist one. Fowles’ plays with different endings to epitomise the early postmodernist problem of artistic form and representation and this technique agrees with Umberto Eco’s idea that literature has openness and can be interpreted in many ways. The postmodern style is successful in creating a tension between these endings within a single text. The last alternative ending in chapter 61 can be construed as the existentialist one. The existentialist theme dramatises the struggles of individuals to define themselves and to make moral decisions about the conduct of their lives in worlds which deny them of freedom. Both Charles and Sarah are searching for themselves, trying to find their own existences by rebelling against the norms of tradition: Charles by embracing Darwinism nd declaring himself agnostic (in line with the Nietzschean existentialist ideology); and Sarah by redefining herself (such as labelling herself â€Å"Mrs†) and avoiding the hypocrisy of Victorians towards sexuality and human relations. Like Charles and Sarah, the reader is free of manipulation (by the author) and we can manoeuvre our position in the narrative to create our own â€Å"meaning†. The use of the existentialist theme in The French Lieutenant’s Woman makes the reader aware of Sartrean-style thinking which was not in existence in Victorian times but was conceptualised in Fowles’ era. It is successful in allowing the reader to criticise and contrast the differing ideologies present at the respective times and, by highlighting the shift in values, Fowles effectively expounds a new way of thinking. Fowles successfully blends the Victorian novel with postmodern ideologies and twentieth century sensibility by applying paradigms which lead to the reader being allowed to question previously held values, in particular relative values which change according to context, such as sexuality and religion. Through his pastiche of traditional Victorian romance, and historical narrative Fowles deconstructs his novel and makes the reader aware of contextual codes and conventions through ironic, metafictional comments: â€Å"Perhaps it is only a game†¦. Perhaps you suppose the novelist has only to pull the right strings and his puppets will behave in a lifelike manner† -The French Lieutenant’s Woman Chapter 13 *

Educational assessments

AbstractionEducational appraisals have come into examination for many old ages. In times of technological alteration, e-assessment has been a current issue in the universe of educational appraisal. The deductions of this alteration have gained considerable media coverage that range from significant support to considerable resistance. The media article â€Å"Exams are a critical lesson† by Hilary Douglas, will function as illustrations of assessment issue that are brought about by national newspapers. The paper highlights how Continuous appraisal has besides emerged as an attach toing issue to make with e-assessment. In this paper, one argues the necessity to understand the maps of appraisal in order to to the full understand why this alteration is being proposed and the ability to to the full encompass the new chances that modern engineering provides. In add-on, one outlines some of the issues that must be considered and the troubles that must be overcome before uninterrupted appraisal and e-assessment can go a complete world. In decision, it is apparent that the age of e-assessment has arrived but there are still many hurdlings to get the better of before the full potency and benefits of e-assessment are put into pattern.IntroductionIt is with no uncertainty that appraisal and proving have a strong consequence on lives and callings of immature people. Harmonizing to Black and Wiliam ( 2006:9 ) ‘Assessment in instruction must, foremost and first, function the intent of back uping larning ‘ . But what precisely is assessment? Assessment is defined by Linn and Miller ( 2006 ) as the procedure of assemblage and discoursing information from multiple and diverse beginnings in order to develop a deep apprehension of what pupils know, understand, and can make with their cognition as a consequence of their educational experiences ; the procedure culminates when assessment consequences are used to better subsequent acquisition. Assessment serves many maps and there are large educational additions associated with good appraisal as Black and Wiliam ( 1998:3 ) reappraisal in their survey: ‘All†¦ surveies show that†¦ strengthening†¦ formative appraisal produces important, and frequently significant, learning additions. These surveies range over ages ( from 5-year olds to university undergraduates ) , across several school topics, and over several states However, in many cases, appraisal due to patterned advance intents in life may be strictly seen as unreal hurdlings to traverse over in immature people quest for employment or farther instruction. This paper will foreground issues sing maps of appraisal that will assist to understand, how foremost and first, the intent is to back up acquisition. In the eyes of many educational professional, an extraordinary assortment of classroom-targeted enterprises have been unleashed on schools over the last decennary and more. All the enterprises with the same general purpose: the betterment of student acquisition. Appraisal by instructors, whether formative or summational, is one of these developments that are considered to offer important potency for bettering student ‘s acquisition ( Harlen, 1997 ) . This development is on traveling and cogent evidence of it is one of the latest media articles headlined â€Å"Exams are a critical lesson† ( July 19th, 2009 ) The article by Hilary Douglas identifies current tendencies and issues sing maps of appraisal and current and future appraisal patterns. In peculiar the article focuses on a statement by the caput of the Cambridge Assessment exam board saying â€Å"there will be a displacement from traditional high-stake summational appraisals to be replaced by computerised online testing.† The thought behind the strategy would be that pupils could take a trial whenever they are ready and resit these as many times as necessary to be able to acquire a good grade. Continuous appraisal would wholly replace the three-hour written test, instead than a mix of appraisal of coursework and traditional testing which is the norm. As Douglas ( 2009 ) indicates, nine old ages ago, Curriculum 2000 was introduced when students were allowed to recognition their classs as AS students at the terminal of their first twelvemonth. However, the debut of uninterrupted appraisal, as proposed in the article non in its signifier land breakage. Originally A-Levels were assessed through one set of tests at the terminal of a biennial class. They were besides allowed for the first clip to take tests as many times as they liked until they and their instructors felt they had achieved the optimal grade. Even though exam boards such as OCR have already tested e-assessment in environmental and land-based scientific discipline since 2007, and have 1,800 campaigners and 80 schools ( Douglas, 2009 ) utilizing it this summer turn outing to be popular for both pupils and instructors likewise, many educational experts warn that the move could be an unfastened door to the most dismaying cheating and that proving all students around the state in the same manner at the same clip and under the same fortunes is the lone true manner to be able to compare the consequences in a meaningful manner. In add-on, Alan Smithers ( cited in Douglas, 2009 ) professor of instruction at Buckinghamshire University, feels that the move must be stopped at all costs. â€Å"Making opinion about public presentations is n't easy, † he says. â€Å"The best manner of making it is cold-eyed appraisal of pupils undertaking the same undertakings under the same conditions.† It is apparent that a move from traditional summational appraisal to uninterrupted appraisal and e-assessment will convey both challenges and chances sing issues of appraisal and perchance contextualise the map of appraisal. This paper will get down with an scrutiny on the map of appraisal and pay peculiar attending to issues this alteration could convey to schools, colleges and more significantly, pupils. Current appraisal patterns in uninterrupted appraisal and e-assessment will all assistance in understanding the issues this alteration in assessment pattern may hold.Functions of Educational AssessmentHarmonizing to Newton ( 2007 ) when sing optimum design features for future assessment systems, it is necessary to bear in head the underlying intent of those systems. Overall it must be taken into history that a system which is tantrum for one intent will non needfully be fit for all intents and this is something uninterrupted appraisal and e-assessment proposals need to bare into co nsideration. The term ‘assessment intent ‘ may be interpreted in a assortment of different ways one will place the three degrees as mentioned by Newton ( 2007 ) 1. Judgemental Level ( concerns proficient purpose of an assessment event e.g. intent is to deduce standards-referenced opinion expressed as a class, use normally associated in official paperss ) 2. Decision Level ( concerns the usage of an assessment opinion, the determination, action, procedure it enables e.g. the intent is to back up a choice determination for entry into higher instruction ) 3. Impact Level ( concerns the intended impacts of running an appraisal system e.g. the intent are to guarantee that pupils remain motivated, and that all pupils learn a common nucleus for each topic ) ( Newton, 2007 ) It is of import to understand that where the distinct significances are non distinguished clearly, their distinguishable deduction for assessment design may go ill-defined. In this state of affairs, policy argument is likely to be unfocused and system design is likely to continue inefficaciously ( Newton, 2007 ) . So at what degree are the new proposals aimed at? The alteration proposed by the caput of Cambridge Assessment exam board brings a alteration to high-stakes summational appraisal. ‘High Stakes ‘ a term used to denote those state of affairss where involvement in appraisal goes beyond the immediate domain of educational measuring and beyond those persons who sit the trials ( Messick, 1999 ) . In add-on, as many authors have pointed out, the bets may be higher but the proficient jobs associated with appraisal remain the same in that all appraisal, whether high-stake or low-stakes, demands to be valid and dependable ( Linn, 2000:1 ) . American Educational Research Association ( 2000 ) noted that: If high-stakes testing plans are implemented in fortunes where educational resources are unequal or where test deficiency sufficient dependability and cogency for their intended intent, there is the possible for existent injury. Therefore if anything needs to predominate from these alterations in appraisal, are the demands for them to be valid and dependable. So what alterations are being proposed and what differences are at that place in signifiers of appraisal? This now leads one to the non covetous undertaking of briefly happening a differentiation between summational and formative appraisal. It is non 1s purpose to supply an extended literature research on formative and summational appraisal, but a on the job theory that has been taken into history throughout this paper. The position from Harlem and James ( 1997 ) and Harlem ( 2005 ) theory in summational and formative appraisal has been taken into history. Harlem and James ( 1997:372 ) attempted to separate formative from summational appraisal by naming contrasting features, for illustration, summational appraisal demands to prioritize dependability, while formative appraisal demands to prioritize cogency and utility ; formative appraisal dainties inconsistent grounds as enlightening, while summational appraisal dainties inconsistent values as mistakes. Harlen ( 2005 ) later developed this statement, and farther clarified the differentiation between formative and summational as follows: The two chief intents of appraisal discussed in this article are for assisting acquisition and for sum uping acquisition. It is sometimes hard to avoid mentioning to these as if they were different signifiers or types of appraisal. They are non. They are discussed individually merely because they have different intents ; so the same information, gathered in the same manner, would be called formative if it were used to assist acquisition and instruction, or summational if it were non so utilised but merely employed for entering and describing. While there is a individual clear usage if appraisal is to function a formative intent, in the instance of summational appraisal there are assorted ways in which the information about pupil accomplishment at a certain clip is used. ( Harlen, 2005, p. 208 ) Therefore, for intent of this paper it is utile to foreground the points that people frequently seem to believe that the differentiation turns on the nature of the assessment event i.e. , the usage to which assessment opinion will be put. One must take into consideration that whatever the nature of a opinion there would be nil formative occurrence unless the opinion was used in an effort to better acquisition. Therefore, even though one might measure via summational agencies, there is ever the handiness to supply formative feedback and manager pupils on where they have gone incorrect. This may be done through uninterrupted appraisal.Continuous AppraisalThe abolition of the traditional three hr test to uninterrupted assessment brings issues and chances within the educational constitutions. Continuous appraisal, harmonizing to Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Technology ( FMEST, 1985 ) , is defined as a mechanism whereby the concluding scaling of a pupil in cognitive, affecti onal and psychomotor spheres of behavior takes history, in a systematic manner, all his public presentations during a given period of schooling ; such an appraisal involves the usage of a great assortment of manners of rating for the intents of steering and bettering acquisition and public presentation of the pupil. This manner of appraisal is considered equal for appraisal of pupils ‘ acquisition because it is comprehensive, cumulative, systematic, counsel and diagnostic oriented. Having the ability to continuously measure will ease the instructor to understand where the pupil is holding trouble and act through formative appraisal. But what is the intent of this alteration and associating back to the old subdivision, what is the intent of this educational appraisal? In the instance of uninterrupted appraisal, its purpose tantrums on an impact degree, which concerns the intended impact is of running an appraisal system that attempts to guarantee pupils remain motivated, and that all pupils learn a common nucleus for each topic. It is here where even though the proposal is to convey in computerised online testing ( which shall be dealt with later on in e-assessment ) that will bring forth chiefly summational opinion may be used for formative appraisal. The ability for pupils to resit exams allows both the pupil and instructor to utilize a summational appraisal and if the pupil was unsuccessful in their first effort, utilise the consequence for formative intents. How? This allows the pupil and instructor to turn to where precisely they have gone incorrect leting assessment processs and patterns to develop to back up acquisition and underpin instead than undermine pupil assurance, accomplishment and advancement. James and Pedder ( 2006:110 ) provinces, ‘feedback focused on assisting pupils to better sharing standards of quality ‘ . This point can non be understated as the type and quality of feedback to the pupil via formative appraisal has been seen as important in other surveies ( Black and Wilia ms, 2008 ) . However, will this alteration make a difference to pupil ‘s perceptual experience of larning and more so of appraisal? Will these alterations bring large cultural differences to educational constitutions? Entwistle ( 1991 ) helps one to understand some of the issues with respects to uninterrupted appraisal and current patterns. The survey had findings that the pupil ‘s perceptual experience of the acquisition environment determines how they learn and non needfully the educational context in itself. It is apparent from the survey that formative appraisal and uninterrupted appraisal may hold a important consequence on what pupils learn and particularly how they learn. Gibbs ( 1999 ) has hence suggested that if pupils see assessment as the course of study, effectual instruction demands to utilize this cognition, in order to utilize the power of appraisal strategically to assist pupils larn. Biggs ( 2002 ) echoes the same fact when he says that pupils learn what they think will be assessed instead than what is in the course of study. The alterations from traditional appraisal to uninterrupted e-assessment will conversely, have an impact on the scholar ‘s experience of rating and appraisal finding the manner in which they approaches larning ( Struvyen et al, 2005 ) . Appraisal can therefore be looked upon logically and through empirical observation as one of the specifying characteristics of pupils ‘ attacks to larning ( Entwistle and Entwistle, 1991 ; Ramsden, 1997 ) . Within the proposed appraisal in the article, pupils are likely to take a strategic or accomplishing attack to acquisition, where Entwistle et Al ( 2001 ) believes the pupil ‘s purpose will be to accomplish the highest possible classs by utilizing good organised and painstaking survey methods and effectual clip direction, something that one along with perchance many other instructors see as a positive and encouraging alteration. Interestingly, Marton and Saljo ( 1997 ) survey serves as a good illustration in finding relation between attacks to larning and appraisal. A sum of 153 pupils from four topics in Engineering and Business degree watercourses participated in the survey from a University. Results showed that uninterrupted appraisals were preferred over a individual appraisal by a 78 % bulk. Some of the popular grounds for the penchant were easiness to analyze little subjects and hence being able to hit good Markss easy. The coursework Markss can be better because of the burdening given to each of the uninterrupted appraisal every bit good as the ability to construct a stronger foundation as one move from one subject to the other were remarks in favor of uninterrupted appraisals. It forces one to larn subjects decently earlier traveling to following subject. Each subject is given accent throughout the uninterrupted manner of appraisal ( Marton and Saljo ( 1997 ) . However, non all remarks are favorable. Remarks against this type of appraisals included ; excessively many appraisals robs one ‘s clip to larn other topics and frequent appraisal maintain you on alteration manner all of the clip, no relaxation ( Marton and Saljo cited in Jacob et Al, 2006 ) . What is apparent from research is that uninterrupted appraisal helps to look into on acquisition and that larning happens in stairss, non merely for the concluding test. Does this point to larning scheme adopted by the pupils? They seem to necessitate a cheque on their acquisition through trials, which they prefer in little units. But the logical thinking behind this was non to so much the avidity to get the hang the subject as such, but merely to do certain that their marking was helped. Associating to coursework classs, the survey concluded that those campaigners who follow a series of uninterrupted appraisals produce an enviable bulk of Higher Achievers. However, informations shows a negatively skewered distribution. This may hold deduction on the surveies dependability as the being of positively or negatively skewered distributions will be given to cut down the dependability of the trial. However, these consequences are typical for coursework classs particularly if they are designed to prove competence. In uninterrupted appraisal, with respects to assignments, pupils are supposed to seek for and synthesize information on the footing of its relevancy to the given assignment. If formative feedback from instructors is performed right, it should help in the acquisition of pupils. Overall, if the pupil completes and is able to finish the undertakings, they will obtain higher Markss. The survey besides deliberated that those pupils who did non execute in uninterrupted appraisal experienced poorer classs which were reasonably usually distributed. Is the power and influence of coursework evident here? Are some kids helped more than others? It is here where instruction constitution may run the hazard of pass oning to pupils that each unit/coursework etc as stepping rocks to enfranchisement instead than a life-long acquisition experience. Such perceptual experience of pupils encourage a strategic attack to their surveies, and allow them fall back to plagiarism, rip offing and utilizing ‘Rules of the game ‘ or ROGs as Norton et Al ( 2001 ) name. ROGs are an indicant that pupils perceive a hidden course of study where coachs say they want certain things in the appraisal undertaking. Here inquiries of cogency may stand for an issue. Taking into history Cook and Campell ( 1979 ) definition of cogency which is the â€Å"best available estimate to the truth or falseness of a given illation, proposition or conclusion† one has to measure whether pupils are accomplishing better classs because they are motivated, working harder, get bying with smaller units or is it to make with an over inclination for pupils to have coaching and specific information that helps them ‘push-up ‘ their classs. In add-on, Black et Al ( 2006 ) besides reiterates this by bespeaking that far from advancing an orientation towards pupil liberty, such patterns are interpreted as techniques to guarantee award accomplishment and likely aid pupils who are more dependent on their coachs and assessors instead than less dependent ( Torrence, 2007 ) . Modularization of A Levels is a perfect illustration where greater transparence of larning results and the standards by which they are judged have benefited scholars in footings of the increasing Numberss of scholars retained in formal instruction and preparation and the scope and Numberss of awards which they achieve ( Savory et al, 2003 ) . Clarity in assessment results, procedures and standards has underpinned the widespread usage of coaching, pattern and proviso of formative feedback to hike single and institutional accomplishment. In add-on, research grounds reported suggests that such transparence encourages instrumentalism ( Savory et al, 2003 ) . Transparency of aims together with extended coaching and pattern to assist scholars run into them is in danger of taking the challenges of acquisition and cut downing the quality and cogency of results achieved. This is mentioned by Torrance ( 2007:282 ) as a move from appraisal of acquisition, through the presently popular thought of appraisal for acquisition, to assessment as acquisition, where appraisal processs and patterns come wholly to rule the acquisition experience, and ‘criteria conformity ‘ comes to replace ‘learning ‘ and is something that needs to be to the full researched if execution of uninterrupted appraisal and unrestricted resit options are traveling to be made available for all curriculum topics. However, at this phase it is imperative to foreground the fact that the survey by ( Marton and Saljo, 1997 ) serves as a good i ndex of what may be experienced in educational scene. However, with a sample size of 153 from merely four topics in Engineering and Business grades from merely one University might demo perceptual experiences and consequences which are important to that particular survey, but might non needfully expose an association to other educational constitutions. This now leads one to measuring e-assessment and the map of its appraisal and current appraisal patterns.E-assessmentThe proposal of presenting e-assessment brings strengths, failings, chances and menaces to any educational constitution. But before we deal with these it is of import to understand precisely what e-assessment means. The term e-assessment covers the assortment of ways in which computing machines can be used to help the appraisal procedure. This might include utilizing computing machines to administrate an appraisal for formative or summational appraisal ( Attali and Burstein, 2006 ) . The proposal of presenting e-assessm ent is non a new one. Ken Boston ( Chief executive of the Qualification and Curriculum Authority in 2004 ) was bullish about the power of engineering to transform the educational experience of 1000000s of students, but that was back in 2004, and few experts would state that he has been proved right. In fact, five old ages on, none of the anticipations Boston made on that twenty-four hours has turned out to be right. For many in this field, the large inquiry has been why, given that technological alteration has happened rapidly in so many other countries of life, the gait of reform in this country means that, for most students taking tests still means scrabbling on paper. However, Multiple-choice inquiries ( MCQs ) are a perfect illustration on how educational constitutions have embraced the development of e-assessment. MCQ can be used as a agency of supplementing or even replacing appraisal patterns. The growing in this method of appraisal has been driven by wider alterations in the higher instruction environment such as the turning Numberss of pupils, modularisation and the increased handiness of computing machine webs. MCQ ‘s are seen as a manner of heightening chances for rapid feedback to pupils every bit good as a manner of salvaging staff clip in taging. However, there are recognized restrictions with this method. First, research workers discourage the usage of MCQ, reasoning they promote memorization and factual callback, and do non promote high-ranking cognitive procedures ( Scouller, 1998 ) . Some research workers, nevertheless, maintain that this depends on how the trials are constructed and that they can be used to measure acquisitio n at higher cognitive degrees ( Johnstone & A ; Arnbusaidi, 2000 ) . The advantage of MCQ with respects to assessment is its high degree of dependability that can be good as an alternate signifier of appraisal. However, the existent trouble for e-assessment has to make with the nature of analyzing. It is a high-stake activity as we have observed antecedently, which is closely scrutinised. Boyle ( 2009 ) deliberates that there is echt antipathy to put on the line in this country, within authorities, within suppliers of appraisal, amongst pupils, parents and staff. Because of this, things will be given to travel easy. Boyle ( 2009 ) adds that e-assessment nowadayss some serious practical challenges. Having an full twelvemonth group sit and take an test at the same clip, as happens with major conventional GCSEs now, would ask holding two sets of computing machines ; one for those taking the trials and another for other twelvemonth groups, which is expensive and frequently impractical. This therefore brings with it proficient troubles in implementing such initiatives.. Taking into consideration past experiences viz. the compulsory ICT test for 14 year-olds it is non difficult to see why the predicted roar of e-assessment has non occurred. In 2007, authorities had to draw the stopper on a compulsory ICT test for 14 year-olds, developed over five old ages at the cost of ?26 million ( Mansell, 2009 ) after it was found to bring forth consequences for students that were dramatically different from instructor ‘s ain appraisals of their charges ‘ work. It was due to go statutory last twelvemonth, but in the terminal, was offered merely voluntary to schools. Repercussions were highlighted by Andre Harland, head of the Examination Officers ‘ Association stated, â€Å"it did foreground some possible large hazards and jobs with e-assessment. The trial involved taking computing machines in a school out of operation at the same clip, and it merely did non turn out deliverable in the end.† An issue with dependability in summational appr aisal is a cardinal defect as Harlem and James ( 1997 ) reiterate, dependability in summational appraisal is important. In add-on, Boyle ( cited in Mansell, 2009 ) and functionaries from all five tests boards in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, sets out other jobs, including that it may be easier to rip off by looking over person ‘s shoulder at what is on screen, instead than on a desk, and guaranting that high-tech testing does non present some alteration in the criterion of the test. However, it is 1s belief that the proposal made by Lebus is one that focuses chiefly on the computerisation of the externally set and graded high bets summational scrutinies of educational attainment that lead to makings. Surprisingly, was an article by Polly Curtis in the Guardian rubrics â€Å"Computerised proving probably to replace traditional tests, says caput of board† released in the 12th July 2009, stated that Lebus said â€Å"that traditional-style test would still be available for those who preferred them, but the new system would profit pupils who are exam-phobic. There are some people evidently who get really frightened by tests or could n't for other grounds do them well.† One must pull importance to this statement. Merely a hebdomad after the article Hilary Douglas ( 2009 ) stated that uninterrupted appraisal would wholly replace traditional tests, non supplying all the information. This brings to light issues with dependability and cogency of information the media publishes covering with of import appraisal issues. This demonstrates the ballyhoo artist attack to a serious issues sing instruction, and foremost the use of information. In the instance of A-Levels we already implement uninterrupted appraisal and supply resit opportunities the computerisation of these would be a good starting point for high interest summational appraisal. But why computerise? Why computerize a conventional trial if the new trial is meant to measure precisely the same things? Possibly the most common grounds given are that computerised will delver ; I. Increased efficiency/lower costs II. Greater flexibleness sing disposal ( e.g. trial on demand V trials at fixed – and infrequent – times ) III. Instant scores/feedback IV. Fewer mistakes V. Positive promotion through being seen to be ‘up-to-date ‘ VI. The first measure that must be taken earlier more sophisticated computer-based appraisals can be introduced. ( Raikes and Harding, 2003 ) At present, most of the academic makings aimed at 16-18 year-olds in the UK are assessed through a mixture of coursework and summational pen and paper scrutinies. Written scrutinies are still handwritten on paper, and are frequently criticised for restraining instruction, suppressing schoolroom invention, smothering pupil ‘s creativeness and for being progressively divorced from an of all time more technological universe ( Heppel, 2003 ) . There is hence force per unit area to develop appraisals that make full usage it IT developments, non merely in low-stake appraisals but high-stakes likewise. In pattern this can be difficult to accomplish for two chief grounds, even if the advanced appraisals exist. First, schools and colleges will all differ in the quality and measure of their ICT substructure, in the ICT support and in the degree of ICT accomplishments possessed by instructors. In such fortunes it would be really hard for an scrutiny board to present a high bets, advanced computer-based trial that would be accessible to all schools and colleges, and furthermore, which would non disfavor pupils from schools and colleges with destitute ICT resources. In add-on, likely demands for equity in appraisal would necessitate a traditional paper-based test. Second, a really high value is placed in the UK on the care of ‘standards ‘ from twelvemonth to twelvemonth, and this would be hard to show clearly since written trials define past criterions. The contention stirred up in the UK in 2002 about the consequences of new A Level scrutinies was caused mostly by ‘the absence of a clear apprehension of the criterions or degrees of demand ‘ ( Tomlinson, 2002 ) and how they relate to the old A Level system ; this once more serves as another illustration as the dangers involved in presenting wholly new types of high bets appraisal. Both equity and the criterions troubles may be addressed by first computerizing bing trials. Equivalent pen and paper and computing machine versions of the same trial may so be analogue that will ease all stakeholder to so concentrate on the migration from pen and paper to computing machine ( Raikes and Harding, 2003 ) .When about everyone is taking the trials on computing machine, it becomes easier to present some invention. By holding a procedure that moves in gradual phases it is believed it will ease the move towards valid trials whilst cut downing the concern about criterions. However, there are already cases where e-assessment is being implemented and demoing mark of success. Literature from Linn and Miller ( 2005 ) that clip required is a major issue when it comes to assignment taging. Two chief factors are to be considered: clip spent on administrative undertakings and the clip really spent on prosecuting the pupils work and the proviso of quality feedback. E-tools are developing and conveying positive alterations to instructors. The country were e-tools can do a existent impact on efficiency in disposal: providing paperss, easy accessible to all involved, accepting assignments entries, covering with safe and unafraid storage, pull offing the distribution of assignments to markers and easing the communicating within the marker squad ; returning taging sheets etc some in add-on to advantages mentioned earlier. Detecting plagiarism was another issue that was mentioned as a major advantage of utilizing e-tools. Having the assignment in electronic signifier means it can be cross-checked against past twelvemonth ‘s assignments and current assignments, and an e-tool like Turnitin can besides test for citations from text books. ( Heinrich et al, 2009 ) Overall, if research documents encountered and the deficiency of cardinal scheme from the authorities is any indicant to travel by, one believes that the execution of e-assessment when it comes to uninterrupted summational appraisals still has a batch of development to do, particularly if past mistakes are to be rectified and assurance in it dependability and cogency starts to better. There are promoting developments and as Professor Peter Tymms, of Durham University says: â€Å"The test boards are all on it, they are all believing about it, and seeking difficult to make it. But they have non yet found their manner frontward yet.† It hence leads one to believe that it is merely a affair of clip before e-assessment replaces traditional signifier of appraisal.DecisionThe purpose of this paper was to critically near appraisal patterns, maps of appraisal and interrogate current appraisal patterns through a media history. Continuous appraisal, formative and summational appraisal an d e-assessment were the chief subjects developed by the media article. Within these sub groups there were common subjects covering with cogency and dependability that helped understand the possible impacts these development in appraisal may hold for pupils, instructors and the wider universe. Overall, it is apparent from the research that the map of appraisal is of great importance when planning to alter any assessment systems. The passage from traditional summational appraisal to uninterrupted appraisal by the caput of Cambridge Assessment exam board leads one to believe that the assessment way appraisal boards are heading is one of impact functional degree, which concerns running an appraisal system that attempts to guarantee pupils remain motivated, and that all pupils learn a common nucleus for each topic. Due attention and attending will be needed, in order non to put inordinate demand on a criterion-based appraisal. This will take pedagogues to measure what the scholar can make in relation to the undertaking required of them and put small involvement on placing what else the scholar can make. The handiness of limitless resits and importance of criterion-based appraisals may hold serious larning reverberations as a displacement in accent of doing certain that pupils hiting are helped instead than an avidity to get the hang the subject. There has been a move from ‘assessment of larning ‘ to assessment for larning ‘ and now assessment as larning ‘ ( Torrance, 2007 ) The proposal made with respects to execution of uninterrupted appraisal as a series of e-assessments is non intended to to the full replace the traditional schoolroom appraisal and that is something everyone in educational constitutions, One believes, needs to take into history. But it can efficaciously complement the latter particularly in the context of big categories. MCQs have demonstrated successful illustrations on how to include e-assessment into the schoolrooms. Increased efficiency, greater flexibleness in working and instant tonss are some of the advantages e-assessment has brought into schoolrooms and schools. However, at this minute in clip, and taking past experiences into consideration, implementing e-assessment in footings of high-stake appraisal options will be difficult to accomplish ; either due to quality and measure of substructure or equity and criterions. It is true that impulse is constructing and as Durham University Professor, Peter Tymms says â€Å"the test boards are all on to it, they are all believing about it, seeking difficult to make it. But they have non yet wholly found their manner frontward yet. There is no uncertainty that the age of e-assessment is upon us. However, there are still many hurdlings to get the better of before the full potency and benefits of e-assessment are gained.Reference ListAmerican Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association and National Council on Measurement in Education ( 1999 ) Standards for educational and psychological testing ( Washington, DC, American Educational Research Association ) . 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